who won the war of 1812 essay

The War of 1812 Essay

However, Great Britain refused to recognize the French Republic due to the beheading of the monarch. England’s acknowledgement of France would display agreeance in the beheading and doing so would inspire radicals within the empire to follow the example of the French. The confrontation that develops between France and Great Britain will cause the United States to declare war. This essay will examine the views of those in favor for the War of 1812 and those opposed.

The War of 1812 took place while president James Madison was in office. Madison was born in Orange County, Virginia in 1751. He attended the College of New Jersey, which is now well known as Princeton. Madison did many significant things both before and after he was in office. He participated in the framing of the Virginia Constitution, served in the Continental Congress and he was also a leader in the Virginia Assembly. One of his major contributions was a ratification to the Constitution. He wrote the Federalist essays along with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay. In writing that, many people then began referring to him as the “Father of the Constitution.” Madison felt guilty for getting all the credit so he protested

War Of 1812 Research Paper

These disrespectful and unjust actions of the British are not only what caused the war, but they are also the reason the War of 1812 is accurately able to be described as the United States Second War for Independence. This second war of independence was not to fight to get independence but to prove they could successfully be autonomous and defend themselves. The United States did this by fighting the British with no outside help, even the Native Americans fought with Britain and Canada. In the beginning this seemed like it would be a good idea even though American militias were not prepared; however, it was a rocky start for the armies. The navy had been successful which was a major victory since Britain at the time had the largest naval power in the world.

War Of 1812 : War

At the point when the war started, it was being battled by the Americans to address their grievances toward the English. This appeared like a reasonable reason for a war, however not the greater part of the subjects had a similar feeling of solidarity about the political issues the war was being battled about. The US was entirely vexed about the proceeding with impressment of American mariners into the English Naval force and the seizures of American dealer exchanging vessels by the English. Another reason the Assembled States wished to go to war with England was a direct result of their dealings with the Indians in the West. The English were exchanging with the Indians, as well as giving them weapons and urging them to assault American settlements. Alongside these reasons, the Americans, now getting to be eager for land, longed for catching English Canada and conceivably

The War of 1812

The United States of America was undertaking a major task in setting out to conduct its first war after the drafting of the Constitution. The British Empire had encroached just too far for President Madison, and the waterways in which the United States depended were threatened by British naval vessels repeatedly. There were three stated causes to the beginning of the War of 1812, and each of them has to do with specific problems that the British had put into place before the Americans.

What Caused The War Of 1812 A Mistake?

The war of 1812 was caused by several different reasoning’s. First, Britain was at war with France. However, Britain did not want the United States to provide France with food and supplies. This would lead to Britain setting up a particle blockade. Second, between the years of 1802 and 1803 the British had captured (kidnapped) about 6,000 American sailors forcing them to work on British ships. Third, many of the American settlers believed that the British were stirring up the Native resistance to limit settlement. Finally, members of congress like Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun had started to sire up about the ideal of war. This was based off of their resentment towards British violation of maritime rights and Britain’s encouragement of Native American hostility against American expansion in the West.

War of 1812 Essay

4 Works Cited

     The War of 1812 was a war between Britain and the United States fought primarily in Upper Canada. It had many causes, few which involved British North America. The results of the war include the fact that there was no clear winner or loser among them. The only real losers in the situation were the Natives in the region. They were driven out of their lands and customs. None of the borders was changed by the war, though many attempts were made. The Treaty of Ghent, which ended the war, did nothing to advance the state of the countries. It went so far as to end the war and put things back the way that they were, but the main causes of the conflict were not addressed or dealt with. In order to evaluate the

Why Was The War Of 1812 Inevitable

The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were a period of constant war within North America. From the Seven Years War of 1754 to American Revolution of 1775 and the war of 1812, just to name a few. The War of 1812 is, however, the most peculiar of them all. It was imposed by Madison upon a nation that was unenthusiastic and hesitant to fight.The main reasons that led to the declaration of the war were led by a motivation to preserve and maintain national honour in face of what Americans considered British insults. The British wanted to restrict the American trade with Napoleonic France, which was of highly profit, that America won in a long conflict against them. The British Navy seized American ships and American sailors

Essay Causes Of The War Of 1812

The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and Great Britain from June 1812 to the spring of 1815 (Findling, 15). When the war began, it was being fought by the Americans to address their grievances toward the British, though toward the end, the issues eventually were unjustified and reasons manipulated. There is no single cause for the War of 1812 but instead, several related causes, such the influence of the War Hawks, the impressments as well as the Embargo and Non-Intercourse acts, and the British's possible interference with the Indian Nations, and land ownership disputes between the Natives and Americans, ultimately leading to the Battle of Tippecanoe.

War of 1812 DBQ

The War of 1812 was a war that lasted for two years that helped the United States to firmly and officially establish its independence. After finishing with the concern of France, England turned its attention over to the United States. At first, the United States did not want to resort to war and fighting (Doc. B) but rather sort out their issues economically--because England had seized all ships that did not stop in the British port before heading to their other European destinations, Congress passed the Embargo Act and then the Non-Intercourse Act, allowing trade with all nations except France and England. Then, England refused to allow this trade to occur, so America had to resort to war. The Northeastern Federalists were not in favor of

The Winner Of The War Of 1812 Essay

There are many conflicting viewpoints of the war of 1812. Both sides claim it as a victory but only one side can win a war. The war of 1812 isn’t a very well known war throughout the world but it has been a very important one to the countries and people involved. The war was an issue of the U.S. wanting land and seeing an opportunity to have North American Britain while Britain was at war with Napoleon. The U.S. also wanted to trade with everybody as Great Britain was stopping the U.S. from trading with enemies in Europe such as Napoleon. The United States and Great Britain both views The War of 1812 as a victory but in reality the United States did not achieve their goals of the war and Great Britain obtained almost all of their goals with less losses.

How Did Alexander Hamilton Shape American Finance

The War of 1812 was a war fought between 1812 and 1815, between the United States and Britain. There are many factors that led to this war of independence. One of the main causes is impressment. Many British officials were hijacking U.S. ships and kidnapping the sailors onboard, forcing them to serve in the Navy

War Of 1812 Dbq

The War of 1812 is often referred to as the United States's second war of independence because, like the Revolutionary War, it was fought against Great Britain. The Conflict resulted from the clash between American nationalism and the war Britain and its allies were waging against the empire of Napoleonic France. Many Americans believed that England sought to humiliate the United States, limit its growth, and perhaps even impose a quasi‐colonial status upon its former colonies.

The War Of 1812 : An Obscure Conflict Essay

On June 1, 1812, the United States’ fourth President James Madison signed a declaration of war against Britain approved by Congress. This is obscurely known as the War of 1812, which was also the first war of the 19th century and lasted from 1812 to the spring of 1815. The War of 1812 is widely known as the “forgotten war” because the war has left very little to the popular memory. Despite the opposition from an entire region, mainly the Federalists, of the United States for the War of 1812, there were many reasons for the United States to commence the war. The War of 1812 was caused by numerous reasons including British impressment of American sailors and their refusal to acknowledge American neutrality rights, the United States’ widespread belief the British were encouraging Indian rebellion, the actions of some newly-elected Congressmen dubbed the “War Hawks,” and the American desire for more land.

Explain Why Some Americans Supported The War Of 1812

Some Americans, such as the Warhawks, believed the war was essential. One reason they wanted to fight was because of impressment. During the Napoleonic Wars with France, Britain wanted the United States to only trade with them. After we declined, Britain was angry and started taking our ships and kidnapping our sailors so we

“The War of 1812”

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Causes of The War of 1812

Course of the War

Effects of The War of 1812

War of 1812 conclusion.

United States and Great Britain engaged in war in 1812, hence named “The War of 1812”. This war lasted for three years, that is, from 1812 to 1815.

It resulted from the cropping anger of the Americans over trade issues, impressments of American sailors, and British aid of the Indian attacks on the front line against the Native Americans (Roosevelt, 113). Although some of the Americans thought of 1812 War as a second war of independence, during this war, neither the British nor the Americans gained any decisive advantage.

The 1812 War took place during the reign of President Madison; he had declared war against the British after collision of the Americans with the British. The conflict between the Americans and the British had resulted from the British support of the Indians, Americans’ enemies.

The Indians had inputted much effort in doing away with the American administration, for instance, they fought the American troops leading to the reduction of the Americans power. In addition, the Indians offered protection to the British that resided in North America, this close association between the British and the Indians catalyzed American anger hence the outbreak of 1812 War.

Course of War

1812 War had its spark from a group of young politicians in the House of Representatives in America known as war hawks led by Henry Clay and John Calhoun.

The war hawks had diverse reasons as to why they demanded for the declaration of war against the British, and some of the reasons included the British violation of international laws that opposed disruption of marketing practices, the disrespect showed by the British, and the kidnapping act of the British.

For instance, the British violated international laws opposing disruption of marketing places by seizing American ships that transported goods for trade. The Americans considered the act of seizing American ships at their territory by the British as a show of disrespect. They therefore considered war as a solution, hence the War of 1812.

The British act of kidnapping innocent American sailors was also one of the causes of the 1812 War, the British captured and enslaved American sailors hence contributing to the rise of war hawks’ anger. The Chesapeake Affair of 1807 was also a contributing factor to the war of 1812, in 1807; the British soldiers managed to get aboard of American ship and killed innocent Americans that they caught, an act that left Americans burning with anger.

The neutrality act of Americans also contributed to the outbreak of the 1812 war, the Americans had the habit of carrying out their trading activity without showing interest or concern of the war that was taking place between the French and the British. The neutrality act portrayed by the Americans made the British take advantage of them.

The Americans started mistreating them by seizing their ships and capturing innocent American sailors (Hannay, 107).The succession of the British in the 1805 war against the French worsened the relationship between the British and the Americans, it led to the declination of the American participation in the trading activities across the seas.

Although the treaty of Ghent signed in December 1814 did not touch on any issues concerning the causes of the 1812 War, it contributed immensely towards the end of the 1812 War. The American and the British representatives had met at Ghent in Belgium with the intention of signing a peaceful treaty. According to the signed treaty, all conquered states were to be returned.

The treaty also paved way for the planning of commissions that solved boundary issues that existed between America and Canada. Via the signed treaty, the Americans were also able to restore their war lands and ships that had been captured by the British (Cullum, 133). In addition, the treaty contributed to the British promising to return the slaves it had captured.

Success of 1812 is based on the efforts of Andrew Jackson, in 1815, Andrew Jackson together with his poorly trained troops managed to win the Battle of New Orleans. The war had taken place between British and the Americans who had not gotten the news of the signed treaty.

Andrew Jackson with his outnumbered American army had managed to defeat the well trained and equipped British soldiers in the war that lasted for three years (Auchinleck, 89). The Battle of New Orleans had depicted the nationalism of the American volunteers, hence signifying the importance of Andrew Jackson.

In conclusion, the 1812 War was as a result of conflicts between the British and the Americans, it had resulted from the British overlooking the American neutrality. The 1812 war lasted for three years. In addition to the war contributing the drop of the American trading activity, it also led to the loss of many lives.

The British together with the Indians fought the Americans leading to the reduction of American powers. However, the efforts of the war hawks together with Andrew Jackson’ effort contributed immensely to the success of the American troops against the British.

Works cited

Auchinleck, Gilbert. A History of the War Between Great Britain and the United States of America: During the Years 1812, 1813, and 1814 . New York: Maclear & Company, 1855. Print.

Cullum, George. Campaigns of the War of 1812-15, Against Great Britain – Sketched and Criticised – With Brief Biographies of the American Engineers. New York: Symonds Press, 2010. Print.

Hannay, James. History of the War of 1812 Between Great Britain and the United States of America. New York: HardPress, 2012. Print.

Roosevelt, Theodore. The Naval War of 1812 . New York: Echo Library, 2007. Print.

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Essay On Did The Us Win The War Of 1812

War of 1812: military conflict between great britan and the united states.

The War of 1812 was a military conflict between Great Britan and the United States. It lasted roughly two and a half years, and was not an utter bloodbath, nor did it affect anything economically or territorial. Despite there not being a true victor of The War of 1812, the Americans proved to European nations that America was it’s own striving nation, and able to sustain foreign attack. Besides the two large nations, the only losers were the Native Americans residing east of the Mississipi River such as the Shawnee, Potawatomi, and Ojibwa Tribes. In the pivotal years of America’s development, all that the Americans wanted was to expand west, this led to Native American repulsion towards the white settlers.

Why Did The Americans Win The War Of 1812

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What Caused The War Of 1812 Dbq

The War of 1812 was the first invasion in American history. It was also the first time the U.S had ever declared on another country, which was signed on June 18, 1812 by President James Madison. Though congress eventually voted on war, both the House and Senate were severely divided. Federalists opposed the war because they believed they used it to promote their expansionist agenda. There were multiple causes of the war, Britain’s restrictions of U.S trade by the Orders in Council, the British navy capturing American seamen and forcing them to serve on the behalf of the British, and America’s desire for expansion. The U.S decided to attack Canada but they suffered a humiliating defeat after Sir Isaac Brock and Tecumseh’s forces forced them

War Of 1812 Dbq Essay

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Causes Of The War Of 1812 Essay

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It also ended Americans ambitions to annex Canada. No longer looking north, and settling many disputes with England, this gave America the time and resources to expand westward and settle the recently-acquired Louisiana Territory without interference. This was the catalyst that sent America on a collision course with Mexico. Another consequence of the War of 1812 was a willingness from both Americans and the British to talk over their differences versus going directly to war. This allowed for the establishment of borders and fishing rights with a shot ever being fired. The American philosophy for fighting war changed as well. Rather than militia, Americans built a regular army. A professional army who received regular pay, were extensively trained, and had a merit based system of

More about Essay On Did The Us Win The War Of 1812

Who Won the War of 1812?

The War of 1812 otherwise known as the “Forgotten War”, was a three year military conflict between America, Britain and their Native allies. It was a relatively small war that arguably shaped a continent for centuries to come. Around the time of 1812 there was tension in and around America because of several controversial acts that Britain had passed out. Because of the Napoleonic Wars Britain had a “You are either with us or you are against us”, approach to other nations. However the British did whatever it took to get out of a war however that could not happen because of what they were doing. The British had forgotten America after the war of Independence and didn’t regard them as a powerful Nation. Their focus was on France however America managed to tangle themselves in this conflict between the two Nations by trading with the French. America wanted to make some money off France and had engaged in trade a while back. The British, because of their approach of dealing with other nations, had set up an embargo that made American ships pay a duty to the British before they could trade with the French. They had also engaged in what was called impressment in which they would take men of American ships, if the men had even the most vague connection to Britain they would take them hostage and put them on their own boats to go to war for the British. Theses acts angered the Americans and they wanted to go to war with Britain so a new breed of congress and government were put in place. They were called Warhawks, these men were more aggressive and were known to act before thinking. The Battle of Profits town had most probably been the tipping point for going to war, when Sir Governor William Henry Harrison and his militia had attacked P... ... middle of paper ... ...d victorious from the war of 1812. Although I have defined this war to be a British victory through writing this essay I have learned that war always comes at a price. There is always a loss whether it be many casualties, loss of land or both. I have learned that war should always be the last resort, but that is not always the case. America wanted to pick a fight with Britain, when they could have tried negotiating with Britain. Although the War of 1812 was a relatively small war, it shaped a continent for centuries to come. War always has a big effect on peoples, countries, continents and even the world. Unfortunately war can not always be avoided and in cases like that there isn’t much you can do. We must always respect the people that fought for us, that defended us when the Americans attacked.The War of 1812 was a British victory and the proof is Canada it self.

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War of 1812 Overview

The War of 1812 pitted the young United States in a war against Great Britain, from whom the American colonies had won their independence in 1783. The conflict was a byproduct of the broader conflict between Great Britain and France over who would dominate Europe and the wider world.

In Britain’s effort to control the world’s oceans, the British Royal Navy encroached upon American maritime rights and cut into American trade during the Napoleonic Wars. In response, the young republic declared war on Britain on June 18, 1812. The two leading causes of the war were the British Orders-in-Council, which limited American trade with Europe, and impressment, the Royal Navy’s practice of taking seamen from American merchant vessels to fill out the crews of its own chronically undermanned warships. Under the authority of the Orders in Council, the British seized some 400 American merchant ships and their cargoes between 1807 and 1812. Press gangs, though ostensibly targeting British subjects for naval service, also swept up 6,000 to 9,000 Americans into the crews of British ships between 1803 and 1812. Some of the impressed sailors were born in British possessions but had migrated to the United States, while many others had attained citizenship that was either in question or simply could not be documented.

With only 16 warships, the United States could not directly challenge the Royal Navy, which had 500 ships in service in 1812. Instead, the new nation targeted Canada, hoping to use the conquest of British territory as a bargaining chip to win concessions on the maritime issues. Most Americans assumed that the conquest of Canada would be, in the words of former president Thomas Jefferson, “a mere matter of marching.” The United States enjoyed a huge population advantage over Canada—7.7 million to 500,000—and it was widely believed in America that U.S. troops would be welcomed as liberators. But events did not play out as Americans expected. Waging war at the end of extended supply lines over the vast distances of the North American wilderness was no easy task. The British and their allies from indigenous nations in North America proved a formidable foe.

American armies invaded Canada in 1812 at three points, but all three campaigns ended in failure. One army surrendered at Detroit at the western end of Lake Erie, a second army surrendered at Queenston Heights at the other end of the lake, and a third army withdrew after little more than a skirmish north of New York. A similar multi-pronged invasion went better in 1813, but only in the West, where an American victory on Lake Erie paved the way for a land victory at the Thames in Upper Canada, which restored U.S. ascendancy throughout the region. But further east, American forces made little headway.

In 1814, the United States was thrown on the defensive because the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in Europe enabled the British to shift additional resources to the war in America. The U.S. continued to remain on the offensive on the Niagara front, but the bloody fighting there was inconclusive. Elsewhere the British took the offensive, although their forces encountered the same problems waging wilderness warfare across vast distances that had plagued the United States earlier in the war. The British occupied Washington, DC, burning the public buildings there, and successfully occupied a hundred miles of the Maine coast. Elsewhere however, the British were rebuffed. British forces withdrew from New York when they lost another inland naval battle, this time on Lake Champlain. They had to give up an assault on Baltimore when they were unable to compel Fort McHenry to submit, and they were decisively defeated at New Orleans.

If the war went worse than Americans expected on land, it went surprisingly well at sea, at least initially. Early in the war, the new nation won a series of single-ship duels between American and British warships. Especially noteworthy were the four successful cruises made by USS Constitution in the war. The frigate outran a large British squadron in 1812 and subsequently defeated four Royal Navy ships in combat. Constitution also earned her nickname, “Old Ironsides,” when round shot in the duel with HMS Guerriere appeared to bounce off the ship’s 22-inch-thick hull. An American seaman exclaimed, “Huzza! Her sides are made of iron!” Soon after, Constitution was known as “Ironsides,” which in time became “Old Ironsides.” American privateers also took a toll on British shipping early in the war.

In the end, however, British naval power held. The British used their navy to ship troops to Canada, to keep them supplied, and to blockade and raid the American coast. The blockade had a devastating impact on the U.S. economy and public finance, and also kept most American warships in port. The British convoy system—in which warships escorted merchant vessels—cut down on the success of American privateers. Furthermore, the British evened the score in single ship duels by defeating USS Chesapeake , USS Essex , and USS President .

Ultimately, the War of 1812 ended in a draw on the battlefield, and the peace treaty reflected this. The Treaty of Ghent was signed in modern-day Belgium on December 24, 1814, and went into effect on February 17, 1815, after both sides had ratified it. This agreement provided for returning to the status quo ante bellum , which meant that the antagonists agreed to return to the state that had existed before the war and restore all conquered territory.

Both sides could claim victory, the British because they held on to Canada and their maritime rights, and the United States because just fighting the “Conqueror of Napoleon” and the “Mistress of the Seas” to a draw vindicated its sovereignty and earned the respect of Europe. As British diplomat Augustus J. Foster acknowledged at war’s end, “The Americans . . . have brought us to speak of them with respect.”

The only real losers in the war were the indigenous nations of North America, who were defeated in two wars connected to the War of 1812: Tecumseh’s War in the Old Northwest and the Creek War in the Old Southwest. American success in these wars opened the door for westward expansion and threatened the indigenous peoples and their ways of life east of the Mississippi River.

The war was fraught with a host of other consequences. It laid the foundations for the emergence of Canada as an independent nation and induced the British to seek peaceful relations with the United States for the remainder of the 19th century and beyond. It also helped forge the United States into a nation. Americans could celebrate their victories on the high seas and on Lake Erie and Lake Champlain, as well as at Fort McHenry and New Orleans. These victories introduced new American heroes (including Oliver H. Perry and Dolley Madison) and future United States presidents (William Henry Harrison and Andrew Jackson), developed new expressions (including “We have met the enemy and they are ours” and “Don’t give up the ship!”), established American symbols (USS Constitution , the Fort McHenry flag, and Uncle Sam), and inspired a patriotic song that eventually became the national anthem (“The Star-Spangled Banner”).

The War of 1812 may have been a small war, but it left a profound and lasting legacy that reverberated through history and continues to be felt even today.

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What led to the War of 1812?

How did the war of 1812 end, did the war of 1812 have popular support, what role did native americans play in the war of 1812, what were the war of 1812’s lasting effects.

War of 1812

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The commercial restrictions that Britain’s war with France imposed on the U.S. exacerbated the U.S.’s relations with both powers. Although neither Britain nor France initially accepted the U.S.’s neutral rights to trade with the other—and punished U.S. ships for trying to do so—France had begun to temper its intransigence on the issue by 1810. That, paired with the ascendance of certain pro-French politicians in the U.S. and the conviction held by some Americans that the British were stirring up unrest among Native Americans on the frontier, set the stage for a U.S.-British war. The U.S. Congress declared war in 1812.

Peace talks between Britain and the U.S. began in 1814. Britain stalled negotiations as it waited for word of a victory in America, having recently committed extra troops to its western campaign. But news of their losses at places like Plattsburgh , New York, and Baltimore , Maryland, paired with the duke of Wellington’s counsel against continuing the war, convinced the British to pursue peace more genuinely, and both sides signed the Treaty of Ghent in December 1814. The final battle of the war occurred after this, when a British general unaware of the peace treaty led an assault on New Orleans that was roundly crushed.

The War of 1812 had only mixed support on both sides of the Atlantic. The British weren’t eager for another conflict, having fought Napoleon for the better part of the previous 20 years , but weren’t fond of American commercial support of the French either. The divisions in American sentiment about the war similarly split, oftentimes along geographic lines: New Englanders, particularly seafaring ones, were against it. Southerners and Westerners advocated for it, hoping that it would enhance the U.S.’s reputation abroad, open opportunities for its expansion, and protect American commercial interests against British restrictions.

Native Americans had begun resisting settlement by white Americans before 1812. In 1808 the Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa began amassing an intertribal confederacy comprising indigenous groups around the Great Lakes and the Ohio River valley. In 1812 Tecumseh tightened his relationship with Britain, convincing white Americans that the British were inciting unrest among northwestern tribes. British and intertribal forces took Detroit in 1812 and won a number of other victories during the war, but Tecumseh was killed and his confederation was quashed after Detroit was retaken in 1813. Creek tribes continued to resist from 1813 onward, but they were suppressed by Andrew Jackson ’s forces in 1814.

Although neither Britain nor the U.S. was able to secure major concessions through the Treaty of Ghent , it nevertheless had important consequences for the future of North America. The withdrawal of British troops from the Northwest Territory and the defeat of the Creeks in the South opened the door for unbounded U.S. expansionism in both regions. The treaty also established measures that would help arbitrate future border disputes between the U.S. and Canada, perhaps one reason why the two countries have been able to peaceably share the longest unfortified border in the world ever since.

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War of 1812 , (June 18, 1812–February 17, 1815), conflict fought between the United States and Great Britain over British violations of U.S. maritime rights. It ended with the exchange of ratifications of the Treaty of Ghent .

Uncover how the new United States fought with the British over naval impressment and their history of conflict

The tensions that caused the War of 1812 arose from the French revolutionary (1792–99) and Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815). During this nearly constant conflict between France and Britain , American interests were injured by each of the two countries’ endeavours to block the United States from trading with the other.

American shipping initially prospered from trade with the French and Spanish empires, although the British countered the U.S. claim that “free ships make free goods” with the belated enforcement of the so-called Rule of 1756 (trade not permitted in peacetime would not be allowed in wartime). The Royal Navy did enforce the act from 1793 to 1794, especially in the Caribbean Sea , before the signing of the Jay Treaty (November 19, 1794). Under the primary terms of the treaty, American maritime commerce was given trading privileges in England and the British East Indies , Britain agreed to evacuate forts still held in the Northwest Territory by June 1, 1796, and the Mississippi River was declared freely open to both countries. Although the treaty was ratified by both countries, it was highly unpopular in the United States and was one of the rallying points used by the pro-French Republicans , led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison , in wresting power from the pro-British Federalists , led by George Washington and John Adams .

After Jefferson became president in 1801, relations with Britain slowly deteriorated, and systematic enforcement of the Rule of 1756 resumed after 1805. Compounding this troubling development, the decisive British naval victory at the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805) and efforts by the British to blockade French ports prompted the French emperor, Napoleon , to cut off Britain from European and American trade. The Berlin Decree (November 21, 1806) established Napoleon’s Continental System , which impinged on U.S. neutral rights by designating ships that visited British ports as enemy vessels. The British responded with Orders in Council (November 11, 1807) that required neutral ships to obtain licenses at English ports before trading with France or French colonies. In turn, France announced the Milan Decree (December 17, 1807), which strengthened the Berlin Decree by authorizing the capture of any neutral vessel that had submitted to search by the British. Consequently, American ships that obeyed Britain faced capture by the French in European ports, and if they complied with Napoleon’s Continental System, they could fall prey to the Royal Navy.

Close-up of terracotta Soldiers in trenches, Mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shi Huang, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, China

The Royal Navy’s use of impressment to keep its ships fully crewed also provoked Americans. The British accosted American merchant ships to seize alleged Royal Navy deserters, carrying off thousands of U.S. citizens into the British navy. In 1807 the frigate H.M.S. Leopard fired on the U.S. Navy frigate Chesapeake and seized four sailors, three of them U.S. citizens. London eventually apologized for this incident, but it came close to causing war at the time. Jefferson, however, chose to exert economic pressure against Britain and France by pushing Congress in December 1807 to pass the Embargo Act , which forbade all export shipping from U.S. ports and most imports from Britain.

The Embargo Act hurt Americans more than the British or French, however, causing many Americans to defy it. Just before Jefferson left office in 1809, Congress replaced the Embargo Act with the Non-Intercourse Act, which exclusively forbade trade with Great Britain and France. This measure also proved ineffective, and it was replaced by Macon’s Bill No. 2 (May 1, 1810) that resumed trade with all nations but stipulated that if either Britain or France dropped commercial restrictions, the United States would revive nonintercourse against the other. In August, Napoleon insinuated that he would exempt American shipping from the Berlin and Milan decrees. Although the British demonstrated that French restrictions continued, U.S. Pres. James Madison reinstated nonintercourse against Britain in November 1810, thereby moving one step closer to war.

Britain’s refusal to yield on neutral rights derived from more than the emergency of the European war. British manufacturing and shipping interests demanded that the Royal Navy promote and sustain British trade against Yankee competitors. The policy born of that attitude convinced many Americans that they were being consigned to a de facto colonial status. Britons, on the other hand, denounced American actions that effectively made the United States a participant in Napoleon’s Continental System.

Events on the U.S. northwestern frontier fostered additional friction. Indian fears over American encroachment coincidentally became conspicuous as Anglo-American tensions grew. Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa ( The Prophet ) attracted followers arising from this discontent and attempted to form an Indian confederation to counteract American expansion. Although Maj. Gen. Isaac Brock , the British commander of Upper Canada (modern Ontario), had orders to avoid worsening American frontier problems, American settlers blamed British intrigue for heightened tensions with Indians in the Northwest Territory. As war loomed, Brock sought to augment his meagre regular and Canadian militia forces with Indian allies, which was enough to confirm the worst fears of American settlers. Brock’s efforts were aided in the fall of 1811, when Indiana territorial governor William Henry Harrison fought the Battle of Tippecanoe and destroyed the Indian settlement at Prophet’s Town (near modern Battle Ground, Indiana). Harrison’s foray convinced most Indians in the Northwest Territory that their only hope of stemming further encroachments by American settlers lay with the British. American settlers, in turn, believed that Britain’s removal from Canada would end their Indian problems. Meanwhile, Canadians suspected that American expansionists were using Indian unrest as an excuse for a war of conquest.

Under increasing pressure, Madison summoned the U.S. Congress into session in November 1811. Pro-war western and southern Republicans ( War Hawks ) assumed a vocal role, especially after Kentucky War Hawk Henry Clay was elected speaker of the House of Representatives . Madison sent a war message to the U.S. Congress on June 1, 1812, and signed the declaration of war on June 18, 1812. The vote seriously divided the House (79–49) and was gravely close in the Senate (19–13). Because seafaring New Englanders opposed the war, while westerners and southerners supported it, Federalists accused war advocates of expansionism under the ruse of protecting American maritime rights. Expansionism, however, was not as much a motive as was the desire to defend American honour. The United States attacked Canada because it was British, but no widespread aspiration existed to incorporate the region. The prospect of taking East and West Florida from Spain encouraged southern support for the war, but southerners, like westerners, were sensitive about the United States’s reputation in the world. Furthermore, British commercial restrictions hurt American farmers by barring their produce from Europe. Regions seemingly removed from maritime concerns held a material interest in protecting neutral shipping. “Free trade and sailors’ rights” was not an empty phrase for those Americans.

The onset of war both surprised and chagrined the British government, especially because it was preoccupied with the fight against France. In addition, political changes in Britain had already moved the government to assume a conciliatory posture toward the United States. Prime Minister Spencer Perceval ’s assassination on May 11, 1812, brought to power a more moderate Tory government under Lord Liverpool . British West Indies planters had been complaining for years about the interdiction of U.S. trade, and their growing influence, along with a deepening recession in Great Britain, convinced the Liverpool ministry that the Orders in Council were averse to British interests. On June 16, two days before the United States declared war, the Orders were suspended.

Some have viewed the timing of this concession as a lost opportunity for peace because slow transatlantic communication meant a month’s delay in delivering the news to Washington. Yet, because Britain’s impressment policy remained in place and frontier Indian wars continued, in all likelihood the repeal of the Orders alone would not have prevented war.

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War of 1812
War of 1812, (June 18, 1812–February 17, 1815), conflict fought between the United States and Great Britain over British violations of U.S. maritime rights.