Argumentative Essay on War and Peace
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Introduction
Man, the most revered child of Creation, has fought battles between them to fulfill his selfish desires or satisfy his ambitious intentions. In the process of gradual evolution, many products have emerged.
War is the final result of these products. This man has, at times, made this world scene patiently. He has thrown down the Asherahs that he has made with his hands to dust and has put his hands on the holy blood of his brothers. He sometimes plays with life as if it were a small thing. But peaceable people do not want war; they want peace and happiness.
Naturally, man is thirsty for peace. He believes in peace. But why are there wars? Perhaps a person gained some brutality in the struggle against wildlife and natural disasters in ancient times. Or maybe some people are just like animals.
But whatever the reason, although they want to hide their beastlike nature under the guise of modern education and modest manners, their actual condition is sometimes revealed. Then we see an old beast that will never change. Such people are always in love with violent games. And war is the inevitable result of their willful thoughts and desires.
The earth could have become a beautiful paradise because of the gifts given by the industrial revolution in Europe. To the surprise of many, however, the greed of a few greedy individuals in Europe spread to other parts of the world through the power of the revolution.
There was a rush of blood. They began to use scientific power to further their evil ends. Not only did they rob people of their wealth, but they sucked their blood, killed them, and tortured them, and sadly, they are at war here and there with problems in the distribution of power and wealth to rivals. Thus, war broke out like a plague on a global scale. The current trend in the world is merely an extension of the evils of history.
War means destruction, genocide, and recession. People rejoice at the devastation and destruction taking place in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Thousands of innocent men, women, and children who thrived in the free environment of nature had to die an untimely death. Therefore, war is a curse.
No party benefits from it — neither the winner nor the loser. Dangerous dangers to war have been seen in the Gulf war, the Chechen liberation struggle, the Bosnian and Afghanistan civil war, the Palestinian liberation struggle, and countless other wars.
From the history of myths and legends, we hear of the devastating wars of Lanka, Troy, and Karbala. None of these wars have brought any good to any individual or nation or nation. Undoubtedly, it is always dangerous.
Where is the world going at this time? Where can we hunt for the golden deer of peace? If we look at developed countries, we have little hope to see them exist. We indulged in arms competition. Underneath the veil of false brotherhood and reverence flashes terrible teeth of doubt and disbelief.
The fundamental philosophical conflict between socialism and democracy exacerbates the ongoing perpetual war between nations. However, the people have taken the initiative to capture the golden calf of peace by establishing the United Nations. There are now many official Geneva chat rooms for peace talks. One scholar during World War II made this statement about Geneva.
Perhaps the same comment, at least to some extent, could be made with today’s UNO.
Peace is like happiness — the more generous it is, the more at stake. And perhaps that is why there is a shortage of both of them in today’s world. Many people, at least most of those who lead other people, are jealous, self-centered, or selfish.
Each of them has different goals, different goals, and different approaches. But if there were one common goal for everyone — peace on earth, there would be only peace. Regardless of the differences between the various values or the philosophical concepts, we can quickly turn our backs on a truly peaceful world.
We must ensure resilience and tolerance. The UNO must now move forward with more power and freedom. We have built our civilization through thousands of years of effort. Therefore, we should not harm it, nor should we let anyone do it just because we are angry with one another. “We must love one another or die.”
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Essay on War and Peace
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Argumentative Essay On War
The topic of war has sparked up a lot of debate over the years. War arises when two or more views heavily oppose each other, and as a result, engage in violence. After the bloodshed, war is ended by either agreement or surrender. However, some situations may cause war to recur, as another motive for war may arise, such as revenge. Since 3600 BC, there have been more than 14,500 major wars recorded with more than 4 billion casualties (The facts on War and Peace, 1999). Many argue that war is needed simply because it is effective, while others may oppose stating many immoral decisions have resulted from war. For example, deploying child soldiers is not a new fact, as there are currently 300,000 active child soldiers around the world (The facts on War and Peace, 1999). The effectiveness of war is questionable, however that is not the focal point of this essay. Instead, this essay will explore war in a moral sense. By presenting arguments from both opposing views, this essay will ultimately explain why war is not …show more content…
In this essay, the author
- Explains that war arises when two or more views heavily oppose each other, and as a result, engage in violence. some situations may cause war to recur, as another motive for war may arise.
- Explains that the violence of war directly causes the death of innocent civilians, and argues that war is morally wrong since it does not take drastic measures to ensure civilian safety.
- Explains that an active soldier is at a high risk of experiencing death or serious injury. even if they return home without an injury, their mental state will not be the same.
- Explains that the food chain is a natural system that ensures survival of the fittest.
- Argues that it is not reasonable to compare the death of a civilian from war with that of preys from the food chain.
- Explains that war opposes evil ideas, such as the nazi movement created by adolf hitler.
- Argues that the argument is valid, but an objection could be made to question its soundness. war itself violates the moral principle of "you shall not murder".
- Analyzes how both views discussed valid arguments along with objections to reduce the soundness of their opposition. the view deeming war as immoral used a simple yet effective argument that war kills innocent civilians.
- Opines that war has existed for a long period of time, whether it be from disagreement or revenge.
Even though the argument has shown validity, a counterexample can be used to decrease its soundness. The food chain can be used as a counterexample for this argument, as many organisms are killed, yet it has been accepted by humans and other species as well. The food chain is a system which ensures survival of the fittest: the stronger species will kill the weaker species and use them as food. Since the weaker species have not done any harm, they are innocent. Therefore, innocent lives are lost. Along with the many organisms involved in this system, humans are one of the biggest predators, as they use their preys as food, clothing, and other resources. Since the food chain is a natural system, which is needed for the prolonged survival for many species, it is seen as morally
- explanatory
- Analyzes how eisenhower referenced america in this quote, and how they came together from children and women’s support at home, to the men fighting the war overseas.
- Explains that the home front during world war 2 was what kept the men going strong. japan attacked the pearl harbor naval base in hawaii on december 7, 1941.
- Explains that baseball was taken away by president roosevelt. movies were non-war related, giving patriotic music and war updates. women, children, and industry workers provided supplies.
- Explains that the men at war were the courageous force keeping the united states free and safe during ww2. the allies' strategy was to attack germany at all angles, while bombing the heart of germany.
- Analyzes how the battle of iwo jima showed that the u.s was close to winning the war. after five and a half years of ww2, the axis finally surrendered to the allies.
- Analyzes how world war 2 changed america's politics, economy, social changes, and war losses. the war also ended the great depression, which brought joy to the americans.
- Opines that the men, women, and children that changed the united states forever during world war 2 will forever have a special place in the heart of america.
- Explains that just war theory, a doctrine originally attributed to saint augustine, postulates that certain circumstances can lead to the justification of war, especially if war is used to prevent even greater atrocities.
- Argues that while the u.s. has met most of the criteria of jus ad bellum, its methods to counter terrorist organizations such as al qaeda have violated the principles of just war theory.
- Explains that u.s. involvement in yemen meets the criteria for jus ad bellum, including just cause, proper authority, right intention, probability of success, and proportionality.
- Opines that drone strikes have brought about a completely different type of warfare, one which the original thinkers behind just war theory probably couldn't fathom.
- Concludes that the u.s.' involvement in yemen has violated just war theory. the families of people killed by drone strikes are more likely to join terrorist organizations.
- Opines that drones are a weapon to caution against due to the degree of separation.
- Analyzes how the argument that the intervention was the last resort is dubitable. while some targets were identifiable enemy combatants, many of the people killed in drone strikes were only suspected terrorists.
- Analyzes how president barack obama's 2013 speech on drone policy lends another perspective to the issue. he stands by the idea that u.s. involvement in yemen is in accordance with just war theory.
- Explains that we are at war with an organization that would kill as many americans as they could if we did not stop them first. this is a just war waged proportionally, in last resort, and in self-defense.
- Opines that america's legitimate claim of self-defense cannot be the end of the discussion as our fight enters a new phase.
- Explains that they haven't chosen between the two bills they are looking into.
- Opines that the idea that a combat veteran can be denied without being screened for two medical issues is serious issue.
- Opines that veterans have not been given the care they need systematically. they have cared deeply about their well-being since the beginning of the war in iraq.
- Opines that this is the second bill regarding demoting or firing employees at the va based on performance or misconduct.
- Explains that the total number of military and civilian casualties in world war i was over 38 million, excluding the additional 17 million deaths and 20 million wounded.
- Opines that the united states should have never been involved in the vietnam war, and that a memorial that would recognize american troops for fighting an unnecessary war would be opposed by the masses.
- Opines that the war in iraq was a bigger problem than the united states had imagined it to be when they entered it.
- Explains that war has been a constant part of human existence from the earliest recorded events through to modern times. in western civilisation, this limitation on warfare has taken shape as an effort to limit both the determination of when war is appropriate and the means used in battle.
- Explains that just war theory is a historical tradition formed by experience and reflection, influenced by international law, the traditions of chivalry, and soldierly practices derived from many battles.
- Explains the religious sources of just war theory, stating that the christian faith has influenced the secular conception of war. st. augustine of hippo was the first christian theologian to determine the circumstances under which war is legitimate.
- Explains that st. augustine's conception of the just war did not create a carte blanche for bloodshed.
- Explains st. augustine's view that wars must be waged under lawful authority. aquinas based his theory on the right to make war and the importance of the intent.
- Explains that aquinas' views on the justification of war form the basic core of just war theory.
- Argues that grotius' view of a universal standard of behaviour for nation-states outside of promulgated law would have profound impact on later just war theorists.
- Explains that just war theory underwent relatively few modifications until the nineteenth century. the united states' government acknowledged the legitimacy of the customary norms employed by grotius.
- Explains that the nuremberg charter and the united nations charter encapsulated the reigning notion of just war theory as represented by st. thomas aquinas and grotius.
- Explains that just war theory, despite its diverse sources and historical development, has several commonly recognised elements, such as just cause, competent authority, and right intention.
- Explains that a war must be declared by competent authority, not vengeance or retribution. the goal of war is to obtain just and durable peace.
- Explains that just war theory is an attempt to think morally about war. it has been recognised and used widely in the 20th century to limit the horrors of war, and incorporated into international law through the united nations charter.
- Cites james turner johnson's legal and moral constraints on low-intensity conflict, 147, and 148.
- Explains that the efforts of the international community to limit warfare stretch back well into the middle ages, as judith gail gardam points out in proportionality and force in international law.
- Explains that the nuremberg tribunal used just war categories to determine if the actions taken by the axis powers were in accordance with international law.
- Cites paul ramsey's war and the christian conscience and the just war: force and political responsibility.
- Analyzes st. augustine of hippo's against faustus the manichaean xxii.
- Explains that st. thomas deals with the question of the legitimacy of war in his summa theologicae, part ii and ii, q.
- Opines that st. thomas bases his arguments heavily on the writings of st augustine.
- Cites david j. bederman's reception of the classical tradition in international law: grotius' de jure belli ac pacis.
- Cites hugo grotius, the law of war and peace, bk. ii, ch. 1, ziyad motala and david t. butleritchie, self-defense in international law, the united nations, and the bosnian conflict.
- Cites the nuremberg charter, art. 6(a)-(c), which lists the waging of aggressive war, "violations of the laws or customs of war," and the extermination and enslavement of civilians among its examples.
- Describes the united nations charter, articles 2(4) and 51. gardam at 403-11; motala at 3.
- Explains that the tradition of dividing just war theory into two distinct analytical categories has its roots in the work of grotius, aquinas, augustine, and cicero.
- Analyzes johnson's argument that the just war notion of authority mirrors the modern concept of sovereignty.
- Explains that the koran's first written war law set the stage for the coming eras of "just war" and how the morality of war was viewed.
- Analyzes how the 2nd and 3rd generations of warfare differed from each other because of technological advancements and meta-wars. the 4th generation wars backstep with attacks on non-physical entities and low intensity "cold" conflicts.
- Explains that b.c.e. advancements in war laws have been prevalent in modern society, but that is not to say that they were not prevalent.
- Describes the ways in which one should treat cities that are at a distance from one another.
- Analyzes how the focus placed on the territory is prevalent in the early writings that influenced bce war.
- Explains that alexander of macedon was one of the most influential rulers of his time. he conquered persia and the middle east, looting women and children, and protecting those who were defenseless.
- Explains that there were some advancements before the common era, but they were nowhere as significant as in the centuries to come. the first couple of centuries after the year 0 were a great time for war laws and literature.
- Explains which of the two sovereigns is imbued with the moral law, which general has most ability, and on which side is discipline most rigorously enforced.
- Analyzes how the book "the art of war" influenced the warlords of medieval china and modern warfare.
- Explains that napoleon bonaparte changed the way war was played and shaped society because of his radical and revolutionary methods. his use of modern weaponry gave him the advantage over his enemy.
- Opines that war is to be prosecuted on the territory of the belligerents or the high seas free from every sovereignty, but respects the territories of nations not involved in the war but friends of both.
- Explains that the napoleonic war, riddled with genocide, conquest, and mass murder, was the first time when limitations had to be set.
- Explains that 2nd generation warfare began with the american civil war. the introduction of the breech-loading rifle musket made it possible to fight from longer distances.
- Analyzes how the jus in bello of 3rd generation combat influenced societal advancements, mostly through a morality-based point of view.
- Cites 18 u.s. code chapter 113b - terrorism. cornell law, n.d. web. 01 june 2014. arrian.
- Summarizes the declaration on the protection of women and children in emergency and armed conflict, g.a.res. 3318 (xxix), 29 u.n. gaor supp. (no.
- Explains draper, g. i. a. d., "implementation of international law in armed conflicts."
- Describes the geneva convention treaties, and states that maurice keen, the laws of war in the late middle ages.
- Explains that napoleon's empire, 1812. 1996. google books. by serber peiser. robertson, cameron w. "american civil war."
- Describes the ideas of europe during the french revolution and napoleonic wars.
- Explains that world war one was fought in 1917. many countries were included, primarily the united states and large european countries.
- Opines that innocent life was protected when countries resigned from war and ended the fighting.
- Explains that world war one started because of a global threat. the germans were blowing up ships from other countries.
- Opines that the four reasons for starting wwi were militarism, alliances, imperialism and nationalism.
- Opines that the fifth reason to enter into a war is if diplomatic options have been exhausted.
- Opines that voting isn't necessary to go to war, and that we should go if we need to. wilson ran against war yet sent the united states into war.
- Opines that a positive outcome for humanity cannot be judged since we know we went to war.
- Opines that the war on terrorism has been a big debate for the last decade considering that it is ten years since one terrorist attack.
- Explains that the total cost of the war on terrorism is at $5 trillion and is increasing fast. the cost is good for the economy because it causes many people to buy items from stores, which is taxed to the fund of war.
- Explains that the united states declared war on terror after the 9-11 terrorist attack, which resulted in 2,996 people losing their lives.
- Opines that the killing of osama bin laden caused a number of problems for the united states, such as many disputes in war.
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Argumentative Essay on War Motivations
War is, first of all, a behavior pattern that means a definite state of organized conflict between two or more social entities. The main reason for such a conflict is an attempt to be on top of hierarchy either psychological or material. Aspect of domination is basic for all wars throughout history. But all over the history war was undertaken as noble . Nowadays we can postulate war not only as undesirable but also as morally problematic issue.
Are there reasonable causes to start a war? It is obvious that the issue is deeper than it seems. Pacifists will surely announce that there are no fair reasons to start any kind of war. Other point of view lies in accepting perceived threat as possible viable reason for a war.
But in this case there are some questions to be answered. When does this threat become a serious reason for a war ? What are after-effects or consequences of ignoring the upcoming threat? How much time should pass from the moment when the threat appears to the moment when actions need to be taken?
Threats also can be different. Are they life-important? In terms of war we understand threat as threat to human existence: scarce and deficient resources or incompatible ideology. The unchangeable factor for all kind of wars is the usage of organized violence and destruction of lives and property. Anyway, injustice also develops; it also has dynamics. And the question is: should people risk their lives fighting or should they risk becoming victims? Modern international law accepts only two types of wars : war of defense and wars that are sanctioned by UN Security Council (for example, peace keeping operations).
To sum up we’d better use words of Carl Von Clausewitz: “Every age has its own kind of war, its own limiting conditions and its own peculiar preconceptions.”
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What does a dream mean if taken on a scale of people’s life? Apparently, it means a lot; because people are used to hold on to their dreams, to protect them from the infringements of the other people, to strongly believe that without dreams their life will be ordinary and senseless.
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War Has Beauty
In most cases, war is considered as an ugly activity. This is because, in war more damages are caused, losses incurred and in other incidences life is lost. Just as any other event, two possibilities are always predictable. In war, we may have both positive and negative consequences although negative effects of war overweigh the positive impacts. In this paper, I am going to focus on the ugly part of war and also the positive part of war.
When there is an outbreak of war in a certain region for in stance a country, citizens in that country may end up suffering in many ways. The immediate effect likely to occur is the internal displacement of countrymen. Some end up being refugees in their own country or if lucky enough others fly to their neighboring countries.
War can make a country’s economic growth perish. This comes out as a result of reduced production of goods and services by industries in that country. Foreign investors tend to pull back or look for an alternative country where they can safely invest in. there is no even a single day people could do their investment in a place full of war. In many places where wars have been experienced even for a short period of time, death cases have been reported too. Death may come as a result massive killings during the war or death due to suffering experienced due to lack of food, water, healthy services and so on and so forth. This makes service delivery poor and thus punishing innocent victims.
Apart from these negative aspects of war, there are other major positive impacts of war. It is through war that most people get peace. In history, during the World War I $ II, it was peace that countries were fighting for. Discriminations experienced from colonies actually came to an end because war was started. The colonies were sent away back to their original homeland leaving the colonized countries with peace.
In conclusion, although war which is rated as an ugly activity among other ugly aspects such as hate, fear and cruelty, it has some beauty in it. Some people confidently say that there is no peace without war. Therefore, peace is the silver lining war.
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War was once romanticized in the United States of America. In the past, the U.S was more willing to engage in warfare. However, as war has become more violent and devastating, America's outlook on war has shifted. Instead of solving problems, war has divided the nation, devastated the economy, and destroyed innocent lives. Although each war has been unique and had different outcomes, one thing has become more evident: war is destructive. The United States has become more aware of the horrendous affects of warfare and with each war, they have become less willing to engage in warfare.
Review of War Is a Force That Gives Us Meaning Essay
War Is a Force That Gives Us Meaning, written by the talented author Chris Hedges, gives us provoking thoughts that are somewhat painful to read but at the same time are quite personal confessions. Chris Hedges, a talented journalist to say the least, brings nearly 15 years of being a foreign correspondent to this book and subjectively concludes how all of his world experiences tie together. Throughout his book, he unifies themes present in all wars he experienced first hand. The most important themes I was able to draw from this book were, war skews reality, dominates culture, seduces society with its heroic attributes, distorts memory, and supports a cause, and allures us by a
War and Society: Is War a Cultural or Biological Phenomenon? Essay
Famous Prussian military theorist Karl von Clausewitz said that "war is the continuation of politics by other means." which supports the idea of war as a culturally influenced situation that is determined by the political power in control. War is a tool in the arsenal of a successful power to use when debating and non-violent persuasion fail to achieve the goals of the power. War is always waged for a reason, war is not a random act of slaughter. It is consequential to both the attacking and defending parties and no matter the amount of casualties, war comes with a heavy price. The financial cost of war is astronomical and the effects of war can be damaging to the political power. This is why war is usually a secondary resort instead of an impulsive decision coming from instinctive biology and not rationale. Biology has shown us that we do have reflexive, self defense mechanisms built in that serve the purpose of defending us from predators. But instead of fighting for a cause initiated out of respect for our self defense, we find these mechanisms being manipulated by the political power in order to gain public support for a war waged for entirely calculated reasons and not based on emotional expression. Denis Diderot, a French philosopher, elaborates on war as a
Advantages and Disadvantages of War
War is a seen by those who are against it as the most devastating and dreaded type of human interaction ADDIN EN.CITE Hedges2003517Hedges (2003)5175176Hedges, C.War is a force that gives us meaning2003Gütersloh, GermanyRandom House9781400034635http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=k-KlOS_4b-8C HYPERLINK l "_ENREF_4" o "Hedges, 2003 #517" Hedges (2003). In the society, we leave in, discussions about war are held and preparations for warfare are a normal day-to-day occurrence. Proponents of war argue that nations get a meaning from war and not just carnage and destruction in it way. ADDIN EN.CITE Hedges2003517Hedges (2003)5175176Hedges, C.War is a force that gives us meaning2003Gütersloh, GermanyRandom House9781400034635http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=k-KlOS_4b-8C HYPERLINK l "_ENREF_4" o "Hedges, 2003 #517" Hedges (2003) argues that war gives life a meaning and purpose there by giving people a reason to leave. According to Hedges, with war an excitement hangs in the air. War provides a cause and a resolve to a country as it allows its citizens to be noble ADDIN EN.CITE Hedges2003517(Hedges, 2003)5175176Hedges, C.War is a force that gives us meaning2003Gütersloh, GermanyRandom House9781400034635http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=k-KlOS_4b-8C( HYPERLINK l "_ENREF_4" o "Hedges, 2003 #517" Hedges, 2003).
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No War, No Peace: Healing the World’s Violent Societies
- Published October 14, 2019
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Table of Contents
The Peacemakers of 1919 a Century On Jay Winter
The Call of Unorthodox Diplomacy Bernard Bot
Peacemaking in an Era of New Wars Mary Kaldor
No War, No Peace: Healing the World’s Violent Societies Rachel Kleinfeld , Robert Muggah
From Cyber Swords to Plowshares George Perkovich , Wyatt Hoffman
Law of War or Peace Through Law? Frédéric Mégret
On Peace and the Spaces Between the Words Brendan McAllister
Hard as this is to believe, we live in one of the most peaceful periods of human history. 1 Homicides have been falling in most parts of the world for centuries. 2 Despite the horrors beamed across the internet, violent deaths from wars between states are at historic lows. 3 Civil war deaths have risen in recent years owing to the conflicts principally in Afghanistan, South Sudan, Syria, and Yemen, but they had fallen so far since the end of the Cold War that they are still a fraction (in per capita terms) of what they were at any time before. 4 After rising for a decade and a half, even violent extremist–related fatalities are on the decline. 5
Rachel Kleinfeld
Senior Fellow Democracy, Conflict, and Governance Program
These comparatively recent improvements in peace and security did not occur spontaneously. The end of the Cold War gave them a boost, but they were chiefly achieved by concerted investment in policies designed to prevent and mitigate warfare and terrorism. Sharp reductions in violent crime were also due in part to investments in smarter policing and prevention.
But there is a darker side to the story. 6 Many societies ostensibly “at peace” are far from peaceful. Some of them are experiencing endemic violence that exceed death rates in warfare. These situations can only be improved with better quality governance, rather than traditional peace agreements and peacekeepers. Almost nine out of ten violent deaths across the world today occur inside countries and cities that are not at war in the traditional sense. 7 Criminal violence perpetrated by drug cartels, gangs, and mafia groups is skyrocketing, especially in Latin American and the Caribbean, causing global homicides to creep up again. 8 Meanwhile, state security forces are continuing to deploy mass violence and excessive force against their own people. 9
Robert Muggah
These two types of violence—organized crime and state repression—are more intertwined than is commonly assumed. Politicians, police, judges, and customs officials often cooperate with cartel bosses and gangs in the pursuit of profit and power. Both are skilled at hiding their violent acts such that they often are not recorded in worldwide datasets on lethal and nonlethal violence. Yet it is possible that such violence may be contributing to a jump in overall violent deaths worldwide. Such violence is difficult to disrupt.
These challenges are not confined to poor, “failed,” or “fragile” states. Compare the roughly thirty fragile states listed by the World Bank to the fifty most violent countries in the world, and just four appear in both compilations. It is middle-income countries that are fast becoming the world’s most violent places. 10 Relatively wealthy South Africa has a violent death rate nearly double that of war-torn South Sudan. 11 In 2018, more civilians were killed by state and paramilitary forces in the Philippines than in Iraq, Somalia, or the Democratic Republic of the Congo—as many as in Afghanistan. 12 Of the fifty most violent cities in the world in 2017 (based on murder rates per 100,000), fifteen are in Mexico, fourteen are in Brazil, and four are in the United States. 13 Inequality, not poverty, is strongly correlated with murder—and inequality often rises as poverty falls. 14
The international community has few tools to address the twin challenges of state and criminal violence. Traditional peace treaties and the deployment of blue-helmeted peacekeepers are not fit for purpose. Development organizations have a role to play in reducing criminal violence—but it must be an explicit focus, since measures to alleviate poverty don’t affect violence per se. 15 In fact, efforts to reinforce state capacity can make violence even worse by propping up governments complicit in the problem. When politicians are unable or unwilling to stem violence, international leverage is often limited, since governments can sanction international organizations and agencies or evict their staff. A new toolkit of solutions is needed to return violence to its previous trajectory of decline.
War and Terrorism—Changing Threats
War has always constituted an existential threat to humanity. The civilization-ending potential of armed conflict reached its apogee in the twentieth century. Then, in the late 1940s, something remarkable started happening. The incidence and severity of cross-border and civil wars began to fall. 16 Half a century later, after the Cold War had ended, the number of wars went into free fall, with many petering out as the United States and Russia withdrew support for competing sides. By 2018, direct deaths from civil and interstate wars had dropped to fewer than 53,000 a year. 17 (Indirect deaths caused by conflict, such as increased disease and malnutrition, remain higher. 18 )
The risk of warfare is reemerging as U.S. hegemony weakens and geopolitical rivalries return, fueling regional proxy conflicts such as those in Iraq, Syria, and Yemen. While the deadliness of today’s wars remains historically low, there are nevertheless twice as many civil conflicts today as there were in 2001. It is a small uptick after a long decline, but it is a disturbing trend. 19
Armed conflicts today are harder to extinguish because of three parallel trends. First, while old-style interstate wars are now vanishingly rare, the term “civil war” can be a misnomer. Of the fifty-two current intra-state conflicts counted by the Peace Research Institute of Oslo (PRIO), external states were sending troops to at least one side in eighteen of them. 20 These conflicts fueled by outside states are generally more violent, longer lasting, and much harder to resolve than traditional civil wars. 21 (For more, see the essay by Mary Kaldor in this collection.)
Second, the number of nonstate armed groups participating in the bloodshed is multiplying. According to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), roughly half of today’s wars involve between three and nine opposing groups. 22 In a handful, including the ongoing conflicts in Libya and Syria, literally hundreds of armed groups are fighting one another. Wars are harder to end when so many groups can spoil the peace. Third, today’s warriors are as likely to be affiliated with drug cartels, mafia groups, and criminal gangs as with armies or organized rebel factions. In a globalized world with highly connected supply chains, they often act as all of the above. The Taliban is a rebel group fighting for political control of Afghanistan. It is also a drug cartel fighting criminalized portions of the Afghan government for control over domestic and regional smuggling routes. 23 Politicians, businessmen, and fighters who profit from ongoing war make negotiated peace more complex, and in some cases impossible.
These trends are compounded by a long-ignored reality. Many citizens suffering under predatory governments have no automatic loyalty to the state. Rebel groups, terrorist insurgents, cartels, and gangs successfully lobby for legitimacy and public support—not just with threats, but with slick digital videos and social media persuasion campaigns.
For much of the twentieth century, terrorism was viewed as a lower-order concern by most governments. The September 11 al-Qaeda-led attacks on the United States catapulted terror to the top of the global agenda. Incidents of terrorism spiked for more than a decade. But since 2014, the number of attacks has fallen by as much as 44 percent. 24 North Americans and Europeans still feel that they are on the frontlines of terror, yet according to the Global Terrorism Index, white nationalist groups pose a greater threat to U.S. citizens than political Islamist groups. 25 As gruesome attacks in Brussels, Manchester, and Paris, suggest, Western Europe does face a greater terrorist threat. Yet in 2017, just 2 percent of all terrorist-related attacks occurred in Europe. Across the continent, the probability of dying at the hands of a terrorist was 0.027 per 100,000—slightly less likely than being hit by lightning. 26
The geographic locus of extremist violence has altered. Just seven countries account for 90 percent of all terrorist attacks and related deaths: Afghanistan, Iraq, Nigeria, Pakistan, Somalia, Syria, and Yemen. 27 Perpetrators are also concentrated in a few conflict zones. More than 10,000 of the roughly 19,000 terrorist killings in 2017 were perpetrated by just four groups: the self-proclaimed Islamic State, the Taliban, al-Shabaab, and Boko Haram. 28 Over the past decade, they have been responsible for close to half of all terrorist-related deaths. Terrorism today serves largely as a battle tactic within irregular war in the developing world.
The inherent vulnerability of soft targets will always allow individuals with the will and means to sow terror. But the focus of Western security policy should correspond more closely with the actual—rather than the perceived—threat. In particular, attention should focus on the potential of attacks with biological and chemical weapons, a threat that has become plausible again after their repeated use in the Syrian war. 29
Within the countries hardest hit, the only meaningful method of terror prevention in the long run is to address the factors that give rise to it in the first place. Terror is a tactic of war, but it is a product of inequitable governance and political and social exclusion. Feelings of inequality, marginalization, and indignity feed anger and resentment. Moreover, it is often state violence that sets this tinder alight. According to a UN study interviewing violent extremists across North Africa, violent state repression transformed grievances into terrorist violence in 71 percent of the cases. 30
Rising State Violence
Ever since modern nation-states burst onto the scene in the seventeenth century, they have violently controlled their populations. The practice of giving states a pass on coercion within their borders was codified in the Treaty of Westphalia of 1648, which ended the apocalyptic bloodshed of the Thirty Years’ War in Europe. In the long run, the cure turned out to be more deadly than the disease, however. R. J. Rummel estimated that in the twentieth century, 262 million people were killed by their own governments—six times more than in all international and civil wars occurring in that period. 31 In China, the Soviet Union, and other Communist, totalitarian states such as Cambodia, between 85 and 110 million people were killed by their own governments. 32
After the fall of Communism, humanitarians argued that state repression could no longer be tolerated under the rubric of national sovereignty and noninterference. Most states perpetrating violence against their citizens were no longer near-peer rivals, but weaker governments more susceptible to Western strong-arming. Rwanda’s genocide of 1994, in which possibly 800,000 people were killed in a hundred days, was so horrific that a new norm, the “responsibility to protect,” sanctioning international interference in situations of mass violence, won widespread support. 33
Yet, despite the new global norm of protection, state violence has continued. North Korea is holding between 70,000 and 130,000 people in concentration camps deemed by a Holocaust survivor to be as bad as those of Nazi Germany. 34 In Brazil, police committed more than 6,100 killings in 2018 (more than one of every nine violent deaths in the country)—and one of the legislators who condoned this violence is now president. 35 Amnesty International found that between 2009 and 2015, Nigeria’s military starved or tortured to death at least 7,000 Nigerians, killed 1,200 more in extrajudicial executions, and imprisoned 20,000. 36
Today, state killings are potentially among the largest sources of violence against civilians—although with data so easily hidden and manipulated, it is hard to be sure. Indeed, few countries collect or centralize statistics on victims of state violence, much less make them available to the public. At the same time, new, digitally enabled forms of state control are emerging, most notably China’s practices of preemptive imprisonment and super-charged surveillance, employed most thoroughly against its Muslim Uyghur minority.
While China’s surveillance state hints at the future, Venezuela embodies state violence today. Venezuela has one of the highest murder rates in the world, a grim record that at first glance appears to be the result of murderous criminals taking advantage of a nearly failed state. 37 In fact, Venezuelan drug trafficking is well organized and managed by the government itself. 38 The most virulent form of violence today is the result of such partnerships between states, their security forces, and paramilitaries and organized criminals.
The Sinister Expansion of Organized Crime
Organized criminal violence has grown in virtually every part of the world in recent years, whether it be drug cartel violence in Mexico, reprisal killings among pastoralists and herders in Nigeria, 39 gangland murders in El Salvador, 40 or brutality by election-campaign thugs in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 41 The acts of bloodshed these violent actors commit are often flagrant and intentionally gory so as to send a message to their rivals. Many places are so deadly that they face war in all but name.
True, organized crime tends to step into the breach where a government is unable or unwilling to provide basic security and justice. Yet this kind of organized crime flourishes more often when a state is not weak, but collusive. Such “privilege violence” occurs when politicians and security forces allow mafias, cartels, and gangs impunity, in exchange for campaign contributions, bribes, and help getting out the vote or repressing opposing electorates. 42
The exchange allows these political elites to enjoy the fruits of corruption, privilege, and perks, while ceding portions of their territory to control by violent criminals. 43 In some Mexican towns, parallel governments composed of criminalized political and administrative structures wield real control from behind the scenes. In Brazil, large portions of some of the country’s biggest cities are under the control of competing drug trafficking factions and militias. In some places, criminals and politicians merge and become one and the same. From Latin America to India, violent criminals have gained electoral office, while others seek to influence elections through buying and selling votes. 44
To allow their violent compatriots impunity, politicians politicize and deliberately weaken their security services. Criminalized police battle with gangs and cartels not over law and order, but over control of turf and illegal proceeds. Ordinary citizens are forced to pick sides. Stuck between massive criminal violence and a predatory, criminalized state that tends to prey on the marginalized, populations become polarized, and fragile regimes get even more brittle. These so-called crime wars thus corrode democracy. 45
Poorer communities are left to protect themselves. There is a tight correlation between people’s perception of insecurity and exposure to victimization and their likely support for extralegal measures to restore law and order. Where private security is too expensive and unavailable, people tend to turn to vigilantes, gangs, and mafias that offer security against the predatory state and other violent groups—for a price. The cocktail of factors driving terrorism—marginalization, exclusion, and repression—can similarly compel young men to join criminal gangs. Finally, as impunity grows, ordinary people turn to violence. A significant portion of murder emerges from bar fights and disputes between neighbors rather than professional criminals. 46
The ensuing mayhem allows politicians to posture as being tough on crime with repressive or militarized policing. Many citizens, exhausted by crime and violence, are easily seduced by simple promises of law and order. These so-called mano dura tactics tend to win elections. 47 They are also, often unintentionally, emboldened by foreign security assistance and equipment. But these policies supercharge criminal groups. Zero-tolerance laws condemn many young men to life in jail, where they learn from each other. 48 Criminals respond to brutal policing with even more violence. 49
The result is a self-reinforcing cycle of violence among criminal groups, the state, and regular people. Since 2015, Brazil has witnessed more violent deaths than in Syria. 50 Over the last fifteen years, Mexico has experienced more violent deaths than Iraq or Afghanistan. 51 Public authorities there estimate that 40 percent of the country is subject to chronic insecurity with disappearances and population displacement at all-time highs. 52
Fighting State Violence and Crime
The confluence of state repression and organized crime constitutes a wicked problem. Venezuela (and its patrons) is not going to authorize United Nations peacekeepers to patrol the streets of Caracas. China and Russia are not about to allow international observers to monitor their repression. Questions of noninterference and state sovereignty loom large. A new toolkit can help to fight state violence and crime. These tools could also help in addressing contemporary forms of splintered, semi-criminalized warfare, and the terrorism emanating from poor governance and state repression.
As a beginning, the United Nations, World Bank, and other multilateral institutions must become less risk-averse and savvier in engaging with states that purposefully brutalize their citizens, govern inequitably, or partner with criminals.
The experience of states, or substate governments that are willing to improve, indicates a great deal about policing reforms and other security improvements that can reduce violence. 53 Disrupting today’s violence, however, also requires reducing political, social, and economic inequality and building inclusive decisionmaking mechanisms across divided societies. 54 Reversing high levels of gender inequality and gender-based violence can decrease vulnerability to civil war and interstate war. 55 Countries that offer more opportunities for political and economic participation and encourage social mobility also tend to experience less violence. 56
When the problem is a governing system that relies on violence to sustain inequity, straightforward solutions to increase inclusiveness will meet resistance, however. Technical solutions premised on strengthening a weak but well-intentioned government won’t work. Some bolder and smarter initiatives to address these issues of will are already under way. For example, the World Bank has a program to make security sector budgeting more transparent. Corruption is now receiving greater international scrutiny from public and private investors alike. More work is needed to rebalance lending strategies, including by spending less on technical programs that gloss over the underlying problem and more on efforts that tackle the elites profiting from the status quo. 57
International and intergovernmental organizations are limited in their ability to affect domestic politics, both by internal legal constraints and because they rely on the permission of governments to operate. These interventions from outside are also not a long-term solution: a social contract needs to exist between a state and its people, not a government and external powers. The role of international actors must always be focused on empowering active citizens (and citizenship), while incentivizing states to listen to their own people. Changing the relationship between a state and its citizens is what ultimately reduces state violence and organized crime. Repressive states and organized crime thrive when societies are divided and fragmented.
Success comes primarily from helping the middle class build social momentum for political and economic change. Donors can fund local organizations that can spread trusted information while avoiding partisan pitfalls; can bring citizens together across polarized, divided countries; and can support a free media and investigative journalists who inform people about what their government is up to. Information alone, however, can merely anger and depress populations that lack a means to force change. Knowledge must be paired with mechanisms to enforce accountability.
To reduce chronic levels of violence, outside actors—including public and private donors—must fight to defend civil society, free speech, and rights to assembly and opposition voices. In many countries, opposition efforts rely on local businesses willing to fund advocacy that would build a more just state. 58 Outside funders that can’t appropriately or legally fund advocacy can target aid toward building a middle class and a private sector that can be independent of the government, not reliant on government largesse.
To ease the path of active citizens, international actors must also avoid doing harm. Donor funding can prop up predatory governments so that they do not need to heed the wishes of their populations. Where corrupt politicians are fueling the violence they claim to be fighting, foreign governments should withhold security aid rather than waste taxpayer dollars. Central America’s gangs metastasized when the United States deported gang members from Los Angeles with no support for integrating them into countries they had left as toddlers. The United States continues to repeat that mistake today. 59
The private and social sectors play an important, if often underappreciated, role. International financial hubs such as Dubai, London, New York, Shanghai, and Singapore should tighten the regulations of financial systems and property markets that allow criminals and politicians to launder ill-gotten gains. 60 Academic institutions could follow the lead of Magnitsky Act and Global Magnitsky Act sanctions and deny admission to the children of leaders guilty of gross human rights violations and corruption.
Finally, more research is needed into diplomacy and mediation among criminal groups and between governments and criminals. El Salvador’s famous gang truce of 2012 ended in failure. 61 But, in Los Angeles, violence has not rebounded after a thirty-year truce modeled on the Middle East peace process helped end violent reprisals in the 1990s. 62 These negotiations are often secret and are rarely even apparent to anyone other than the politicians and criminals themselves. Very little is known about the circumstances that allow some to succeed, while others cause only more bloodshed. Gaining a better understanding could help address not only criminal violence but also criminal actors within modern warfare. 63
The problem of violent predatory governments won’t be permanently solved by agreements such as these. In fact, they can make a governing order even less legitimate. But they can buy time, creating the breathing room necessary to rebuild the social contract between a state and its citizens. While working to improve internal governance, other measures are needed to tackle urgent problems that cross borders. Refugee law needs updating to help those trying to save themselves. Millions are trying to escape the criminal violence of Central and Latin America, just as refugees have fled the wartime violence of Syria. The difference is that those seeking succor from crime are often stuck in legal limbo after being refused asylum in third countries. 64 In otherwise peaceful countries across Europe and in the United States, populism is rising on the backs of migrants fleeing bloodshed, often not caused by war.
Finally, data collection may not be sexy, but the fight against all forms of violence also requires better statistics and analysis. There is surprisingly little information about violence in sub-Saharan Africa, where around half the states don’t report homicide numbers, in authoritarian countries where the numbers are probably manipulated, and in places less covered by the English-speaking press (which is generally used to determine conflict counts). 65 Supporting better data, which would be comparable across war and homicide as well as across countries, is essential to learn where the problems lie, and whether interventions are having an impact.
Decades ago, in the wake of the Second World War, a vast intellectual, multinational, and bilateral effort succeeded in corralling interstate war and reducing civil war. Collective violence fell globally. Now it is rising again, in new forms that are harder to eradicate. According to the World Health Organization, one in six people worldwide is affected by violence today. It is time for the international community to direct its manifold resources, monetary and intellectual, to upending the problem of our time: organized crime and criminally violent states.
1 Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Viking Press, 2011).
2 For homicide statistics, see Manuel Eisner, “Long Term Historical Trends,” Crime and Justice 30 (2003): 83–142; Manuel Eisner, “Modernization, Self-Control, and Lethal Violence: The Long-term Dynamics of European Homicide Rates in Theoretical Perspective,” The British Journal of Criminology 41, no. 4 (September 2001): 618–38; Ted Robert Gurr, “Historical Trends in Violent Crime: A Critical Review of the Evidence,” Crime and Justice 3 (1981): 295–353; and Ted Robert Gurr, “Historical Trends in Violent Crime: Europe and the United States,” in Violence in America, Volume 1: The History of Crime , ed. Ted Robert Gurr (California: Sage Publications Inc., 1989), 21–54.
3 Human Security Report Project, Human Security Report 2009/2010: The Causes of Peace and the Shrinking Costs of War (New York: Human Security Report Project, 2011), 21.
4 Nils Petter Gleditsch, et al., “Armed Conflict 1946–2001: A New Dataset,” Journal of Peace Research 39, no. 5 (2002): 615–37. See also Håvard Strand, “Onset of Armed Conflict: A New List for the Period 1946–2004, With Applications,” under review at Conflict Management and Peace Science (2006).
5 National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START), “Global Terrorism Database,” 2018, https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd .
6 See Rachel Kleinfeld, “Reducing All Violent Death, Everywhere: Why the Data Must Improve,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, February 2, 2017, https://carnegieendowment.org/2017/02/02/reducing-all-violent-deaths-everywhere-why-data-must-improve-pub-67857 ; and Robert Muggah, “Counting Conflict Deaths: Options for SDG 16.1, Briefing Note to Members of the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators,” Igarapé Institute, October 2015, https://igarape.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/IAEG-Briefing-Note-Counting-Conflict-Deaths-October-2015.pdf .
7 Mirielle Widmer and Irene Pavesi, “Monitoring Trends in Violent Deaths,” Small Arms Survey, no. 59(September 2016): 1–8.
8 Claire McEvoy and Gergely Hideg, Global Violent Deaths 2017: Time to Decide (Geneva: Small Arms Survey, 2017).
9 Of course, the reduction of mass killings from totalitarian states such as the twentieth century slaughters in China, Russia, and Cambodia does not mean state violence ever disappeared. In countries such as North Korea and Rwanda, state implemented or state-directed violence continued apace.
10 Rachel Kleinfeld and Elena Barham, “Complicit States and the Governing Strategy of Privilege Violence: When Weakness Is Not the Problem,” Annual Review of Political Science 21 (May 2018): 215–38.
11 According to the UNODC, Brazil’s homicide rate is 36 per 100,000, South Sudan’s was 13.9 according to the UNODC in 2012, for a conservative estimate we add to this the estimates of war deaths based on a population of approximately 10.2 million prior to the conflict, and a violent death rate of approximately 190,000 due to war over the course of 7 years. See Francesco Checchi et al., “Estimates of Crisis-Attributable Mortality in South Sudan, December 2013-April 2018: A Statistical Analysis,” London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, September 2018, https://crises.lshtm.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2018/09/LSHTM_mortality_South_Sudan_report.pdf .
12 Roudabeh Kishi and Melissa Pavlik, “ACLED 2018: The Year in Review,” Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project, January 11, 2019, https://www.acleddata.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ACLED-2018-The-Year-in-Review_Final_Pub-1-1.pdf .
13 Consejo Ciudadano Para La Seguridad Pública y La Justicia Penal AC, “Las 50 ciudades más violentas del mundo 2018” [The 50 Most Violent Cities in 2018], Consejo Ciudadano Para La Seguridad Pública y La Justicia Penal AC, http://seguridadjusticiaypaz.org.mx/files/estudio.pdf . The list is limited to cities of more than 300,000 and does not include war zones.
14 Maia Szalavitz, “The Surprising Factors Driving Murder Rates: Income Inequality and Respect,” Guardian , December 8, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/dec/08/income-inequality-murder-homicide-rates .
15 Robert Muggah and Clionadh Raleigh, “Violent Disorder Is on the Rise. Is Inequality to Blame?,” World Economic Forum Agenda, January 4, 2019, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/violent-disorder-is-on-the-rise-is-inequality-to-blame/ .
16 Gleditsch et al., “Armed Conflict 1946–2001,” and Strand, “Onset of Armed Conflict.”
17 Therese Pettersson, Stina Hogbladh, and Magnus Oberg, “Organized Violence: 1989-2018 and Peace Agreements,” Journal of Peace Research 56, no. 4 (2009): 589–603. See also Havard Strand et al., “Trends in Armed Conflict, 1946-2018,” ReliefWeb, March 2019, https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Strand%2C%20Rustad%2C%20Urdal%2C%20Nyg%C3%A5rd%20-%20Trends%20in%20Armed%20Conflict%2C%201946%E2%80%932018%2C%20Conflict%20Trends%203-2019.pdf .
18 McEvoy and Hideg, Global Violent Deaths 2017 , 10.
19 Fiona Terry and Brain McQuinn, “The Roots of Restraint in War,” International Committee of the Red Cross, June 18, 2018, https://www.icrc.org/en/publication/roots-restraint-war# .
20 Kendra Dupuy et al., “Trends in Armed Conflict, 1946-2016,” ETH Zürich, June 22, 2017, http://www.css.ethz.ch/en/services/digital-library/articles/article.html/a7992888-34fc-44e6-8176-2fcb3aada995/pdf .
21 Erik K. Jenne and Milos Popovic, “Managing Internationalized Civil Wars,” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics, September 2017, https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-573 .
22 Terry and McQuinn, “The Roots of Restraint in War.”
23 Robert Perito, “Afghanistan’s Police: The Weakest Link in Security Sector Reform,” U.S. Institute of Peace, August 2009, https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/afghanistan_police.pdf . 7.
24 Institute for Economics & Peace, “Global Terrorism Index 2018: Measuring the impact of terrorism,” Institute for Economics & Peace, December 2018, http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2018/12/Global-Terrorism-Index-2018.pdf .
25 A Washington Post analysis of the Global Terrorism Database at Maryland’s START found that of 263 terrorists incidents since 2010, ninety-two were carried out by white nationalists, compared to thirty-eight jihadists. See Wesley Lowery, Kimberly Kindy, and Andrew Ba Tran, “In the United States, Right-Wing Terrorism Is On the Rise,” Washington Post , November 25, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/in-the-united-states-right-wing-violence-is-on-the-rise/2018/11/25/61f7f24a-deb4-11e8-85df-7a6b4d25cfbb_story.html . See also Institute for Economics & Peace, “IEP’s 2018 Global Terrorism Index: Deaths From Terrorism Down 44 per Cent in Three Years, but Terrorism Remains Widespread,” Institute for Economics & Peace, December 5, 2018, https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/iep-s-2018-global-terrorism-index-deaths-from-terrorism-down-44-per-cent-in-three-years-but-terrorism-remains-widespread-845356407.html .
26 Robert Muggah, “Europe’s Terror Threat Is Real. But Its Cities Are Much Safer Than You Think,” World Economic Forum, June 08, 2017, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/06/europes-terror-threat-is-real-but-our-cities-are-much-safer-than-you-think/ .
27 Institute for Economics & Peace, “Global Terrorism Index 2018,” http://globalterrorismindex.org/ .
29 Will S. Hylton, “How Ready Are We for Bioterrorism?,” New York Times ,October 26, 2011, https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/30/magazine/how-ready-are-we-for-bioterrorism.html?auth=login-email .
30 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), “Journey to Extremism in Africa: Drivers, Incentives, and the Tipping Point for Recruitment,” UNDP, 2017, https://journey-to-extremism.undp.org/content/downloads/UNDP-JourneyToExtremism-report-2017-english.pdf .
31 R. J. Rummel, “Freedom, Democracy, Peace: Power, Democide, and War,” University of Hawaii, http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/ .
33 See United Nations, “Responsibility to Protect,” United Nations, https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/about-responsibility-to-protect.shtml .
34 International Bar Association, “North Korea: Inquiry Finds Kim Jong-un Should Be Investigated and Prosecuted for Crimes Against Humanity,” International Bar Association, December 12, 2017, https://www.ibanet.org/Article/NewDetail.aspx?ArticleUid=8ae0f29d-4283-4151-a573-a66b2c1ab480 .
35 César Muñoz Acebes, “‘Good Cops Are Afraid:’ The Toll of Unchecked Police Violence in Rio de Janeiro,” Human Rights Watch, July 7, 2016, https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/07/07/good-cops-are-afraid/toll-unchecked-police-violence-rio-de-janeiro .
36 “Stars on Their Shoulders, Blood on Their Hands: War Crimes Committed by the Nigerian Military,” Amnesty International, 2015, https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/AFR4416572015ENGLISH.PDF .
37 Juan Carlos Garzon and Robert Muggah, “Venezuela’s Raging Homicide Epidemic Is Going Unrecorded,” Los Angeles Times , March 31, 2017, https://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-garzon-muggah-venezuela-violent-crime-statistics-20170331-story.html .
38 Insight Crime: Venezuela Investigative Unit, “Drug Trafficking Within the Venezuelan Regime: The ‘Cartel of the Suns,’” Insight Crime, May 17, 2018, https://www.insightcrime.org/investigations/drug-trafficking-venezuelan-regime-cartel-of-the-sun/ . Illegal gold mining is also under the purview of the state.
39 Robert Muggah and José Luengo Cabrera, “The Sahel Is Engulfed in Violence. Climate Change, Food Insecurity and Extremists Are Largely to Blame,” World Economic Forum Agenda, January 23, 2019, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/all-the-warning-signs-are-showing-in-the-sahel-we-must-act-now/
40 Robert Muggah, “It’s Official: San Salvador is the Murder Capital of the World,” Los Angeles Times, March 2, 2016, https://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-0302-muggah-el-salvador-crime-20160302-story.html.
41 Robert Muggah, “Is Kabila Using Ethnic Violence to Delay Elections?,” Foreign Policy , November 27, 2018, https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/11/27/is-kabila-using-ethnic-violence-to-stay-in-power/ .
42 Rachel Kleinfeld, A Savage Order: How the World’s Deadliest Countries Can Forge a Path to Security (New York: Pantheon Books, 2018).
43 See Muggah and Raleigh, “Violent Disorder Is on the Rise.”
44 Milan Vaishnav, When Crime Pays (New Haven, Conn. Yale University Press, 2017). See also John P. Sullivan, José de Arimatéia da Cruz and Robert J. Bunker, “Third Generation Gangs Strategic Note No. 9,” Small Wars Journal , https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/third-generation-gangs-strategic-note-no-9 .
45 Robert Muggah and John Sullivan, “The Coming Crime Wars,” Foreign Policy , September 21, 2018, https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/09/21/the-coming-crime-wars/ .
46 Kleinfeld, A Savage Order , 86–96.
47 Robert Muggah, “Reviewing the Costs and Benefits of Mano Dura Versus Crime Prevention in the Americas,” in The Palgrave Handbook of Contemporary International Political Economy , ed.Timothy Shaw, Laura Mahrenbach, Renu Modi and Xu Yi-chong (London: Palgrave, 2018), 465–83.
48 Yusuf Ahmedad, Alyssa Dougherty, Rachel Kleinfeld and Alejandro Ponce, “Reducing Violence and Improving the Rule of Law: Organized Crime, Marginalized Communities, and the Political Machine,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, September 24, 2014, https://carnegieendowment.org/2014/09/24/reducing-violence-and-improving-rule-of-law-organized-crime-marginalized-communities-and-political-machine-pub-57704 .
49 Robert Muggah, “Brazil’s Prison Massacres Send a Dire Message,” NPR, May 28, 2019, https://www.npr.org/2019/05/28/727667809/opinion-brazils-gruesome-prison-massacres-send-a-dire-message . See also Robert Muggah and Ilona Szabo, “Brazil’s Deadly Prison System,” New York Times , January 4, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/04/opinion/brazils-deadly-prison-system.html .
50 Data drawn from the Brazilian Forum of Public Safety (63,880), the Syrian Observatory of Human Rights (39,000). See Robert Muggah, “Brazil’s Murder Rate Finally Fell—and by a Lot,” Foreign Policy , April 22, 2019, https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/04/22/brazils-murder-rate-finally-fell-and-by-a-lot/ .
51 Afghanistan and Iraq figures are drawn from the Costs of War Project at the Brown University Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, which estimated the death toll of the Iraq war (2003–2018) to be from 267,792 to 295,170 and calculated the death toll of the Afghanistan war (2001–2018) to be 147,124 as of November 2018. By comparison, according to the Igarape Institute’s homicide monitor (which utilizes statistics from the Mexican government), there were 33,341 homicides in 2018 and 310,834 from 2003 to 2018. See Neta C. Crawford, “Human Cost of the Post-9/11 Wars: Lethality and the Need for Transparency,” Costs of War, November 2018, https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/files/cow/imce/papers/2018/Human%20Costs%2C%20Nov%208%202018%20CoW.pdf . See alsoIgarapé Institute, Homicide Monitor , V1, distributed by Igarapé Institute, https://homicide.igarape.org.br/ .
52 Tom Phillips, “Mexico: 40% of Country Is Paralyzed by Violence, Says Chief of Staff,” Guardian , July 10, 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/10/mexico-amlo-gangs-violence-land-paralyzed .
53 Thomas Abt, Bleeding Out: The Devastating Consequences of Urban Violence and a Bold New Plan for Peace in the Streets (New York: Basic Books, 2019).
54 Facundo Alvaredo et al., “World Inequality Report 2018: Executive Summary,” World Inequality Lab, 2018, https://wir2018.wid.world/ .
55 Marianne Dahl, “Global Women, Peace and Security,” PRIO, May 2017, https://www.prio.org/Projects/Project/?x=1767 .
56 Kari Paasonen and Henrik Urdal, “Youth Bulges, Exclusion and Instability: The Role of Youth in the Arab Spring,” PRIO, 2016, https://www.prio.org/Publications/Publication/?x=9105 . Opportunities for youth is likely an interdependent variable, serving as both cause and effect, in which case it may be a lagging indicator of a system of governance that is moving away from Privilege Violence.
57 See Robert Muggah and Clionadh Raleigh, “Violent Disorder Is on the Rise.”
58 Leonardo Arriola, Multi-Ethnic Coalitions in Africa: Business Financing of Opposition Election Campaigns (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
59 Ana Arana, “How the Street Gangs Took Central America,” Foreign Affairs 84, no. 3 (May–June 2005): 98–99.
60 Mattha Busby, “First Ever UK Unexplained Wealth Order Issued,” Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project, March 2, 2018, https://www.occrp.org/en/daily/7724-first-ever-uk-unexplained-wealth-order-issued .
61 Sinisa Vukovic and Eric Rahman, “The Gang Truce in El Salvador,” Oxford Research Group, April 18, 2018, https://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/blog/the-gang-truce-in-el-salvador . See also Robert Muggah, Ami Carpenter, and Topher McDougal, “The Inconvenient Truth About Gang Truces in the Americas”, InSight Crime, December 5, 2013, https://www.insightcrime.org/news/analysis/the-inconvenient-truth-about-gang-truces-in-the-americas/ .
62 Andrea Ford, “Ex-Gang Members Look to Mideast for a Peace Plan: Truce: Group Uses 1949 Cease-Fire Agreement Between Egypt and Israel as the Basis for an Agreement Among L.A’s Bloods and Crips,” Los Angeles Times ,June 17, 1992, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-06-17-me-438-story.html ; “Truce That Ended 30 Years of LA Gang Warfare,” BBC News,April 15, 2015, https://www.bbc.com/news/av/magazine-32250743/truce-that-ended-30-years-of-la-gang-warfare .
63 A fascinating example of what works comes from Ecuador, which “legalized gangs” in recent years. See David Brotherton and Rafael Gude, “Social Inclusion From Below: The Perspectives of Street Gangs and Their Possible Effects on Declining Homicide Rates in Ecuador,” IADB, March2018), https://webimages.iadb.org/publications/2019-01/Social-Inclusion-from-Below-The-Perspectives-of-Street-Gangs-and-Their-Possible-Effects-on-Declining-Homicide-Rates-in-Ecuador.pdf .
64 Katie Benner and Caitlin Dickerson, “Sessions Says Domestic and Gang Violence Are Not Grounds for Asylum,” New York Times ,June 11, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/11/us/politics/sessions-domestic-violence-asylum.html .
65 Kleinfeld, “Reducing all Violent Deaths, Everywhere.” See also Alexandra Lysova and Nikolay Shchitov, “What Is Russia’s Real Homicide Rate? Statistical Reconstruction and the ‘Decivilizing Process,’” Theoretical Criminology 19, no. 2 (2015): 257–77.
Carnegie does not take institutional positions on public policy issues; the views represented herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of Carnegie, its staff, or its trustees.
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Make Peace Not War
Mike - glenwood, new jersey.
War is something nobody needs. I believe war is a form of revenge and hate and it has so reason to exist. War has been going […]
War is something nobody needs. I believe war is a form of revenge and hate and it has so reason to exist. War has been going on for centuries, countries and people fight all the time. We have to understand the importance of peace, and have no war. All war does is cause destruction, and chaos. I chose war because I think it is a problem that needs to be solved, war is a terrible thing, war kills hundreds of innocent people and thousands of American or foreign soldiers. The war needs to end, and all others need to end as well. If the world is at peace we can all be happy and be united instead of fighting. War makes me feel threatened, it makes me feel unsafe and it also makes me feel worried about the soldiers that have to fight in it. War makes me feel like I need to help in some way, any way to help so that I can mean something to it and I don’t feel lazy. I want to help the war without fighting in it and making it worse. They serve or country to protect us, but I till feel bad that they have to give their lives for the country. War affects everybody, People in Israel lose their family members, and people in America lose their family members also. War affects people even if they don’t have anything to do with it, they could be an innocent civilian, who has just lost their family member or pet, even an innocent civilian who has just been mistaken for a terrorist and killed. War affects the families all over the world. It kills innocent people all the time. Countries and people belong to be united, not fighting. We should stop all wars and violence so that the world can be at peace. The world belongs at peace and all countries should become allies, War is not the answer, This I believe that all Countries and peoples should be united in peace.
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Last Updated 20 Jun 2022
War Brings Peace
First M . Last Name Professor ‘s Name Class and Number 7 February 2007 Can War Bring Peace ? War is considered as a particular branch of a specific philosophy , with Carl von Clausewitz being considered as the “only philosopher of war ‘stated in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . It also says that it refers to , “a phenomenon which occurs only between political communities ‘ or “certain political pressure groups , like terrorist organizations , might also be considered `political communities ‘ in that they are associations of people with a political purpose (Stanford ,War , 2005 . On the other hand , peace is the pursuit of justice with opposite methods of human diversity and who seek peace are more or less responsible for social changes in visionary ways , while the proponents of war are considered to be narrow minded with one thing in mind – to win something they want , using whatever methods they need to accomplish this . Religion has been blamed as the cause of many wars , yet they considered themselves to be an advocacy for non-violence . A source of conflict ,religion is also a philosophy and practitioner of peace . Contradictory in itself , this explains the conflicting views bringing war into existence .
Not all wars are caused by opposing religious views , but the majority of them are . Jenny Teichman wrote in The Philosophy of War and Peace that “Aggressive wars have often been waged for religious reasons and still are today (Teichman , 2002 , pg . 2 . According to Alexander Mosley in Philosophy of War , “man cannot stop war – it is his nature to wage war ‘ which backs my theory that war is the product of man ‘s ideas and hence is a product of choice . We fight for peace through war , and war continues on until peace comes into being–these are contradictory statements .
Peace found through war is not peace , only a win-win situation , or a give-in situation at the cost of lives , money , and and power win “Man chooses war , and by this is meant that each individual participant chooses war (or has to choose differently , if war is thrust upon him through invasion or conscription ‘Mosley also states that , “The individual is a volitional being , whose cognition is free to use and direct and in group activity such as a battle , each individual must contribute his thought and effort — even if only accepting the orders of others (Mosley , pg . 39 . Does this refer to the desire for peace – hardly . It refers to the fact many are at war through the desires of others for ulterior gain that has nothing to do with achieving peace . There is nothing wrong with different views – they are only different ,with each individual thinking their viewpoint is the correct one -unfortunately , many feel their way is correct for absolutely everyone with everyone else wrong or evil . To sum it up , how each one goes about getting their way is what sets the scene for war or peace : one may peacefully go about it with diplomatic and peaceful ways , such as…
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We should stop all wars and violence so that the world can be at peace. The world belongs at peace and all countries should become allies, War is not the answer
Essay on War Brings Peace ✍ First M . Last Name Professor 's Name Class and Number 7 February 2007 Can War Bring Peace ?